A Colonial Timeline From 1898 to 1998

BOSTON — This Saturday, July 4, The Latino Newsletter and Shake it Easy Media launch American Colony, our eight-episode bilingual podcast series about Puerto Rico’s colonial status. We are excited, proud, and honestly nervous about the premiere.

Over the last few weeks, I have been sharing more and more about why this series matters to me personally, but for this edition, I want to share a selected historical timeline that my fellow host, Nuria Net, and I mention in the Episode 1 Prologue, which will go live on Saturday morning — the 250th anniversary of the United States — on our site, Apple Podcasts, Spotify, and YouTube.

This is Part One, covering 1898 to 1998. Part Two will run later on Friday.

The complete timeline, which the American Colony social video team (thank you, Carlos Berríos and Amalia Núñez-Pires) developed and used for the first videos that will also premiere on July 4, was never intended to be a comprehensive history. That would take thousands of pages — but rather a selected timeline of key moments that help explain why Puerto Rico remains a colony in 2026, and why that status has never changed despite decades of plebiscites, legislation, activism, and sacrifice.

We will also soon share a comprehensive list of resources that speak to this history. In the meantime, we hope this information provides additional context and history around the podcast series.

July 25, 1898 — U.S. Invasion
American troops land at Guánica during the Spanish-American War, beginning the military occupation of Puerto Rico. Spain cedes the island to the United States under the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans have no say in the transfer.

April, 1900 — The Foraker Act
The U.S. Congress establishes a civil government in Puerto Rico, with a governor and executive council appointed by the President, and a non-voting Resident Commissioner in Congress. Puerto Ricans are classified as citizens of Puerto Rico, not U.S. citizens, and have no voting representation in Congress.

1901-1922 — The Insular Cases
Beginning with Downes v. Bidwell in 1901 and running through 1922, the Supreme Court issues a series of rulings known as the Insular Cases. The Court rules that Puerto Rico is “a territory appurtenant and belonging to the United States, but not a part of the United States” and “foreign in a domestic sense.” The decisions rely on explicitly racial reasoning. Many of these rulings remain in effect today.

1904 — Gonzales v. Williams
When a Puerto Rican woman travels to New York and is detained at Ellis Island as an “alien immigrant,” the Supreme Court rules that Puerto Ricans are not aliens under immigration law but stops short of declaring them U.S. citizens. Puerto Ricans are left in legal limbo as “noncitizen nationals,” a colonial designation borrowed from European empires. The question of full citizenship remains unresolved until Congress acts in 1917.

March, 1917 — The Jones-Shafroth Act
President Woodrow Wilson signs the Jones-Shafroth Act, granting Puerto Ricans U.S. statutory citizenship. The Selective Service Act follows shortly after, making Puerto Ricans eligible for the military draft. Approximately 18,000 Puerto Ricans serve in World War I. Puerto Ricans gain citizenship but still have no voting representation in Congress, and those living on the island cannot vote in general elections.

1920 — The Merchant Marine Act
Section 27 of the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 — also known as the Jones Act — requires that all cargo shipped between U.S. ports be carried on vessels that are U.S.-built, U.S.-owned, and U.S.-crewed. Puerto Rico, as a U.S. territory entirely dependent on waterborne trade, is subject to these restrictions.

1936-1937 — Pedro Albizu Campos and the Ponce Massacre
Pedro Albizu Campos is one of several Nationalist leaders arrested in 1936 on seditious conspiracy charges following the assassination of Insular Police Chief Elisha Francis Riggs. He and other party leaders are sent to the federal penitentiary in Atlanta in 1937. On March 21, 1937 — Palm Sunday — Nationalist marchers in Ponce are fired upon by police under the direct command of U.S.-appointed Governor General Blanton Winship. Nineteen people are killed and more than 200 wounded in what becomes known as the Ponce Massacre.

1947 — The Elective Governor Act
For the first time, the United States allows Puerto Ricans to elect their own governor, reversing the previous practice of presidential appointments.

1948 — La Ley de la Mordaza (Gag Law)
Modeled on the anti-communist laws of the United States, Puerto Rico passes Law 53, criminalizing forms of Puerto Rican political expression and advocacy for independence. The law remains in effect until 1957.

1949 — Luis Muñoz Marín becomes governor, the first elected governor of Puerto Rico.

October 30, 1950 — Nationalist Revolt and U.S. Military Action
Puerto Rican nationalists, under the direction of Albizu Campos, launch an armed uprising in multiple towns across Puerto Rico, including Jayuya, Utuado, and Ponce. The U.S. and Puerto Rican authorities respond with military force, including the aerial bombing of the towns of Jayuya and Utuado. Albizu Campos is arrested again.

November 1, 1950 — Attempted Assassination of President Truman
Two Puerto Rican nationalists, Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola, attempt to assassinate President Harry S. Truman at the Blair House in Washington, D.C. Torresola is killed. The action is directly connected to the military reprisals against nationalists in Puerto Rico the day before.

1952 — Commonwealth Status (Estado Libre Asociado)
Puerto Rico adopts its own constitution and establishes a local government structure. The “Commonwealth” status is presented as a new relationship with the United States, but Congress retains ultimate authority, and the island remains an unincorporated territory. Puerto Ricans still cannot vote for president.

March 1, 1954 — Attack on the U.S. Capitol
Four Puerto Rican nationalists — Lolita Lebrón, Rafael Cancel Miranda, Andrés Figueroa Cordero, and Irvin Flores Rodríguez — open fire at the U.S. House of Representatives, wounding five congressmen. They are demanding independence for Puerto Rico.

1965 — Albizu Campos dies, having spent much of his life imprisoned by the United States.

1967 — First Plebiscite
Puerto Rican voters choose to maintain Commonwealth status, with 60% voting for it, 39% for statehood, and less than 1% for independence.

1974-1983 — FALN Bombing Campaign
The Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional (FALN) conducts bombings in the United States, demanding Puerto Rican independence.

October 25, 1977 — Statue of Liberty Occupation
Thirty Puerto Rican nationalists, including former Young Lords members, occupy the Statue of Liberty for eight hours, draping the Puerto Rican flag from Lady Liberty’s crown. The action demands the release of five Puerto Rican political prisoners and calls attention to the island’s colonial status.

1993 — Second Plebiscite
Commonwealth status wins by a narrow margin: 48.6% to 46.3% for statehood.

1996 — Section 936 Phase-Out Begins
Congress begins phasing out Section 936 of the federal tax code, which had attracted U.S. corporations to Puerto Rico with major tax incentives. The phase-out, completed in 2006, accelerates the island's economic collapse.

1998 — Third Plebiscite
Voters are given five options, including statehood, independence, free association, and commonwealth. “None of the Above” wins with 50.3%. It is viewed mostly as a protest vote.

As we independently distribute American Colony and celebrate our 2nd birthday, we are now at 50% of our $25,000 summer goal. Give now to keep us going.

Julio Ricardo Varela is the founder of The Latino Newsletter. He is also its current part-time publisher and executive director. He edited and published this edition.

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